Teachers’ agency and online education in times of crisis

Highlights：

• Teachers’ use of online teaching methods, digital technologies and support for online emergency teaching varied.

• Latent profile and qualitative analyses reveal variation in teachers’ approaches, from resistance to full transformation.

• Teachers’ agency is multifaceted, and is expressed through evaluative, future-oriented or transformative actions.

• Ostensible agency is free of constraints; occlusive agency is expressed under constraints and contingency factors.

• Teachers’ agency, competence, networks and technology infrastructure are critical for online education during crisis.